Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the share of arable land in European Russia increased
from 20 per cent to 50 per cent (Mandych, 1989) and in the deciduous forest zone to 60-80
per cent (Isachenko and Shlyapnikov, 1989). Virgin forests were widely replaced by arable
fields and meadows. In many areas, particularly in the deciduous forest zone, a new biome
of agricultural fields was established. The structure and composition of forests have
changed. The demand for high quality timber and selective cutting transformed
pine-deciduous stands into forests dominated by small-leaved species, and locally into
shrublands. Harvesting of oak, which represented the lower tier in oak-pine forests, has
led to the development of pure pine stands (Walter, 1977). This may explain a broad
distribution of pine stands in Polesye and Meshera. The widespread development of mixed
forests has probably been supported by human activities which made a broader use of the
original deciduous species than conifers. As a result secondary species, small-leaved
trees and pine, became predominant. Small isolated patches of woodland replaced large
massifs. At present, they constitute between 70 per cent and 80 per cent of the total
forested area in the mixed and deciduous forest biomes (Mandych, 1989). Clearings are
prone to swamping which is partly prevented by the use of clearings as pastures. The
negative impact of cattle grazing is that it prevents the development of undergrowth and
promotes the dispersal of weeds in forests. Forest fires are another natural and
human-induced hazard that destroy large areas of woodlands, especially pine stands. The
introduction of new species contributed to shaping the composition of contemporary
forests. For example, in the Kaliningrad region alone about 500 new species have been
introduced (Agakhanyants, 1986) and in Estonia more than 1000 (Valk and Eilart, 1974).
Stands of Larix, represented in Estonia by more than 10 species, are the most typical
example.
Similarly, in the southern Far East forests have been strongly affected by human
activities and greatly damaged by fires of both natural and anthropogenic origin.5 Primary
forests have been widely replaced by arable fields, shrublands, secondary stands of birch
(Betula platyphylla), developing Quercus groves and, in wetter habitats, by Alnus and
Salix stands, meadows and swamps. In the Amur valley, selective fellings of conifers
favour the development of deciduous tree species. Oak often invades clearings which has
led to a hypothesis of a young age for oak forests. However, palynological evidence has
shown that oak was already widespread in the region by the late Pleistocene (Shumilova,
1962). In the west of the Amur valley, the typical secondary species is Carpinus.
In the Colchis lowland, the exploitation of forests and drainage has led to a massive
decline in woodland and plant succession. Normal tree stands were replaced by procumbent
trees and shrublands. Drained lands are covered by subtropical cultures, bamboo, and
eucalyptus plantations. In the foothills, secondary forests are mainly represented by
Carpinus. On the Talysh lowland, forests have been almost completely replaced by
agricultural lands.
